Management Yesterday and Today

8th edition Steven P. harles Renard C Robbins Mary Coulter LEARNING OUTLINE Follow this Learning Outline as you read and study this chapter. o? Historical Background of Management †¢? Scientific Management o? General Administrative Theorists o? Quantitative Approach to Management †¢? Toward Understanding Organizational Behavior o? The Systems Approach o? The Contingency Approach 2–2 Historical Background of Management †¢? Ancient Management O Egypt (pyramids) and China (Great Wall) O Venetians (floating warship assembly lines) †¢? Adam Smith O Published â€Å"The Wealth of Nations† in 1776 v Advocated he division of labor (job specialization) to increase the productivity of workers †¢? Industrial Revolution O Substituted machine power for human labor O Created large organizations in need of management 2–3 Development of Major Management Theories Exhibit 2. 1 2–4 Major Approaches to Management †¢? Scientific Management †¢? General Administrative Theory †¢? Quantitative Management †¢? Organizational Behavior †¢? Systems Approach †¢? Contingency Approach †¢? 2–5 Scientific Management †¢? Fredrick Winslow Taylor O The â€Å"father† of scientific management O Published Principles of Scientific Management (1911) v Associated essay: Scientific Management Theory in HealthcareThe theory of scientific management –? Using scientific methods to define the â€Å"one best way† for a job to be done: †¢? Putting the right person on the job with the correct tools and equipment. †¢? Having a standardized method of doing the job. †¢? Providing an economic incentive to the worker. 2–6 Taylor’s Four Principles of Management 1.? Develop a science for each element of an individual’s work, which will replace the old rule-of-thumb method. 2.? Scientifically select and then train, teach, and develop the worker. 3.? Heartily cooperate with the workers so as to ensure that all work is done n accordance with the principles of the science that has been developed. 4.? Divide work and responsibility almost equally between management and workers. Exhibit 2. 2 2–7 Scientific Management (cont’d) †¢? Frank and Lillian Gilbreth O Focused on increasing work er productivity through the reduction of wasted motion O Developed the microchronometer to time worker motions and optimize performance †¢? How Do Today’s Managers Use Scientific Management? O Use time and motion studies to increase productivity O Hire the best qualified employees O Design incentive systems based on output 2–8General Administrative Theorists †¢? Henri Fayol O Believed that the practice of management was distinct from other organizational functions O Developed fourteen principles of management that applied to all organizational situations †¢? Max Weber O Developed a theory of authority based on an ideal type of organization (bureaucracy) v Emphasized rationality, predictability, impersonality, technical competence, and authoritarianism 2–9 Fayol’s 14 Principles of Management 1.? Division of work. 7.? Remuneration. 2.? Authority. 8.? Centralization. 3.? Discipline. 9.? Scalar chain. 4.? Unity of command. 10.? Order. 5.?Unity of direction. 11.? Equity. 6.? Subordination of individual interest to the interests of the organization. 12.? Stability of tenure of personnel. 13.? Initiative. 14.? Esprit de corps. Exhibit 2. 3 2–10 Weber’s Ideal Bureaucracy Exhibit 2. 4 2–11 Quantitative Approach to Management †¢? Quantitative Approach O Also called operations research or management science O Evolved from mathematical and statistical methods developed to solve WWII military logistics and quality control problems O Focuses on improving managerial decision making by applying: v Statistics, optimization models, information models, and omputer simulations 2–12 Understanding Organizational Behavior †¢? Organizational Behavior (OB) O The study of the actions of people at work; people are the most important asset of an organization †¢? Early OB Advocates O Robert Owen O Hugo Munsterberg O Mary Parker Follett O Chester Barnard 2–13 Early Advocates of OB Exhibit 2. 5 2â⠂¬â€œ14 The Hawthorne Studies †¢? A series of productivity experiments conducted at Western Electric from 1927 to 1932. †¢? Experimental findings O Productivity unexpectedly increased under imposed adverse working conditions. O The effect of incentive plans was less than expected. ? Research conclusion O Social norms, group standards and attitudes more strongly influence individual output and work behavior than do monetary incentives. 2–15 The Systems Approach †¢? System Defined O A set of interrelated and interdependent parts arranged in a manner that produces a unified whole. †¢? Basic Types of Systems O Closed systems v Are not influenced by and do not interact with their environment (all system input and output is internal). O Open systems v Dynamically interact to their environments by taking in inputs and transforming them into outputs that are istributed into their environments. 2–16 The Organization as an Open System Exhibit 2. 6 2–17 The Contingency Approach †¢? Contingency Approach Defined O Also sometimes called the situational approach. O There is no one universally applicable set of management principles (rules) by which to manage organizations. O Organizations are individually different, face different situations (contingency variables), and require different ways of managing. 2–18 Popular Contingency Variables †¢? Organization size †¢? Routineness of task technology †¢? Environmental uncertainty †¢? Individual differences Exhibit 2. 7 2–19

Engaging Generation Y Employees Essay

The ability of employees to combine their commitment to the organization and the organization’s values and to work hand in hand with the other team members creating a comfortable work place that lifts up their morale to competently perform their duties is referred to as employee engagement (Bullivant 2005). These efforts enable employees to make decisions that cater for the success of the organization creating a strong bond between the employees and the organization. The virtue of self confidence and trust to the organization is developed as employees categorize themselves, as core members of the organization. Assets and resources provided by the organization are efficiently used and taken care of in an attempt of securing the future of the organization. Although employee engagement has been studied for a long period of time, its implementation seems difficult as the concept behind it has not been fully understood by employees and employers. The attempt of including employee engagement into the education curriculum has also not been successful (Bullivant 2005). The change in industrial relations has lead to the increased need of organizations to recruit an engaged workforce that assures the development of the organization. The upcoming generation Y that occupies about 40 % of the employment sector in Europe has raised concerns in their performance capability (Bullivant 2005). Employers complain about their inquisitive attitude towards the workplace culture which is not replicated into their work output. To overcome this hurdle generation Y has devised motivational schemes that help them to form an engaged workforce. A change in the order of preference between the public sectors and the private sectors is evident in this generation as a higher percentage has been employed in the public sectors comparing with the percentage of generation X and boom that are employed in the public sector (Townsend & Gebhardt 2007). Generation Y attributes job stability in the public sectors as the security of employment is enhanced. Generation Y comprises individuals that are still growing financially and require stability in employment to enable them fulfil their needs. Generation Y also associates public sectors with the ability of enhancing good employment relationship that links the employer to the employees by providing a balance between work and the personal life of the generation. In the public sectors opportunities for career development training are unending and are also provided outside work hours resulting to a quick progression of employees, because of the fairly well defined career path. This organizational culture attracts generation Y to work in the public sector, fully formulating an engaged workforce (Cook 2008). A plethora of campaigns wants the inclusion of generation Y into political activities thus increasing the desire of the generation towards politics. Public sectors provide opportunities that advocate for the development of the community to improve their welfare by improving the economic status (Milner 2000). This prevails an opportunity for the generation to actively be involved with the community and thus create better opportunities of winning their votes during political rallies. Also the recognition of their views by third party organizations results to a good development of their reputation especially since they are the future generation. Public sectors offer an attractive sum of money in their entry points thus encouraging generation Y to be fully engaged in the fundamental functions of the sector which leads to the growth of the sector and increase in the profit margins (Terry 2000). Problem statement The economy of Europe has seen its better taste in the 21st century as it has steadily grown, however due to the economic stability that the world is facing Business Secretary John Hutton of Business Enterprise and Regulatory Reform (BERR) has announced a review on the importance of employee engagement in the performance capability of British organizations (BERR 2008). The role undertaken by the public sector which mainly comprises the government and local authority departments in engaging generation Y employees aged between 27 years and below needs to recognize the generation as valuable assets to the organizations. The public sector needs to invest more on the generation by devising mechanisms which will advocate creation of an engaged workforce that will be more beneficial towards the performance of the sector. Therefore, this proposal will formulate strategies that will engage generation Y employees in public sector and recommendations of the evaluation criterion to be used (BERR 2008). Significance of the study (practical and ethical issue) Organizations that strive to invest in their employees so as to improve their skills and engagement usually have big profit margins which depicts a positive growth of the organization. Therefore this study is congruent in fulfilling the research objectives depicted in the problem statement as it will advocate for the establishment of business environments that will encourage employee engagement. This will help the public sector to view the employees as valuable assets thus creating an employment relationship that is long lasting. Hence this study will identify strategic measures to be implemented during employee engagement processes to help improve the productivity level of the British sector. The study will also explain the benefits British industry will attain in regards to the UK business competitiveness which depicts a progression career path for the employees. The study advocates for the abolishment of trade regulation and market barriers that affect the capability of the public sectors to stipulate policies which would help them ensure employee engagement. The study also encourages adoption of the practice by outlining the achievements of employee engagement. The study will also correlate employment engagement with business ethical behaviour that are in accordance to human, economic and social norms through the use of compliance programs that help to implement the stipulated government policies and regulations to govern the behaviour of team members in organizations. Literature review Statistics show that employee engagement creates a workforce that works with passion as it find a profound connection to the organization it is working for, resulting to the accomplishment of the organization’s policies which include the mission, vision, goals and objectives. The functions of the organization, customer service, and cost of production and marketing processes are advocated by the personal growth and unification of the common goal because of employee engagement (Bullivant 2005). A flexible organization culture that involves inclusion of team members in decision making, training programs to improve the competence of the team members and the incentive pay systems are supported by incorporation of employee engagement (Bullivant 2005). Organizations that advocate employee engagement have the advantage of retaining their employees as approximately 13% are likely to seek other employment opportunities (Milner 2000). Therefore, the need for government departments to review the importance of employee engagement in the performance capability of British organizations has increased (Bullivant 2005). To enable the public sector to engage generation Y employees they should re-evaluate their work culture to help improve employment relationship that exists between the sector and its employees. This will help the managers of the sector to value the rights of the employees and devise strategies that will lead to the respect and provision of their rights such as sick offs and company infringements. This will enable employee engagement to prevail, as the employees will connect with the managers of the sector improving their correlation (Tamara 2008). Management communication will help to spell out the functions of each team members and regularly evaluate the performance of the organization in regards to the work output of each employee. Trust and integrity will prevail as the team members will freely air their comments and grievances to a listening ear, thus helping the development of employee engagement (Fitz-Enz 2009). This will help the sector to effectively distribute their duties in accordance to the capability of generation Y thus improving their work performance. An instance where the team members will look after the welfare of the others will crop up as team work will be depicted. Through management communication the managers of the sector will be able to recognize the effort of the team members rewarding them accordingly through provision of benefits and promotion schemes which will lead to career development. This will result to retention of the dynamic generation Y employees who will take pride in the sector and thus maximize their capabilities to also develop the sector (Cheese, Thomas & Craig 2008). Offering training programs that will help the employees to understand the sector’s vision, ethics and improve their competence should be among the strategies the mangers of the public sector will use to engage generation Y employees. These programs will help the employees to increase their self confidence and knowledge thus adhering to the ethical codes stipulated by the policies of the public sector (Johnson & CIPD 2004). The managers of the sector will also attend training programs that will help them to learn strategies, values and tactics that will help them in the engagement of generation Y employees into the public sector. This will further increase the credibility of the sector as employment engagement will improve the reputation of the sector thus marketing it. The sector will also increase its scope of customers and thus strive in the stiff competition presented by the private sector (Pinnington, Macklin & Campbell 2007). Research design The research methodology used in this study will measure on the generality and applicability of engaging generation Y employees in the public sector to improve the British industry. Action research that identifies the problem of this study in the existing business practice will be used, as solutions that will be immediately incorporated into the business plan and organization culture of the public sector will result. The study will also rely on the historical perspective of the study problem to help determine the success and failures of previous attempt in engaging generation Y employees in the public sector. The scope of the research will be controlled by the information availed by library and field research. The information collected will be ordered in a descriptive manner to effectively elaborate issues that correlate with the study problems.

Credit Rationing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Credit Rationing - Essay Example The extent of this level depends entirely on the perceived risks in the bank's lending or investment activities. This limitation sometimes leads to credit rationing, which is a situation where a bank refuses credit to a borrower at an interest rate set by the bank itself, because of unavailability of sufficient free capital. To understand the pressures on the capital free for lending available to the bank, we need to understand the limitations placed on it by the central bank in the particular country in order to control its activities. One of the limitations on the bank is the statutory requirement that it should submit a defined percentage of certain kinds of the deposits it receives, into the central bank as reserves at zero interest, in vault cash or deposits. These requirements represent a cost to the bank, as they earn no revenue,and are not in the bank's control.These reserves are used in the day-to-day implementation of monetary policy by the Central Bank. The percentage deduction from each deposit may go towards the maintenance of the entire banking system, but it reduces the amount of capital left to the bank for lending or investments. Another requirement is for the bank to maintain an amount of liquid assets for itself as reserve against specified deposit liabilities, for instance, to pay depositors in case they wish to make a withdrawal, or a certain amount that is due to them at the expiration of a designated saving activity. This further reduces the balance capital for investments, and these liquid assets languish in the bank without working to earn an interest. Higher the statutory reserve and liquid asset requirements, lower the amount of cash available to the bank to extend in terms of credit. In some countries, the statutory reserve ratio is high, resulting in less available amount of credit given out to the borrowers.Thus rationing the credit is the only option left to the bank, in order to maintain the capital adequacy requirements. In the periods where the demand for credit is high, because of a booming market or low interest rates, it may be suggested that the bank increase its interest rates, instead of rationing credits at previous rates. But this could result in bad credit, because the creditworthy individuals move off to cheaper options, following the conditions of adverse selection and the borrowers willing to pay the high rates are those who have very little to lose, or are willing to give up their collateral in exchange for the loan amount. In this case, the bank may be also stepping into a situation of moral hazard where the motives of these borrowers are suspect. To avoid these, banks try to give loans at affordable interests to those with a perceived low credit risk and ration it in the case of all others. But this does not always protect them from acquiring bad loans, or non-performing assets. An asset or loan becomes 'non-performing' or bad when it has not been serviced, or in other words, the interest and/or instalment of principal has remained 'past due' or unpaid for more than the stipulated period, 90

The book of Amos Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The book of Amos - Essay Example So, through Amos, he gives his message of impending judgment to the people of Israel. Amos is the agent in this particular scene, as he will be the on caring out his duties to God to inform the people of the judgment that they will suffer as a result of their wrongdoings. Amos was a humble man who always seeks to do the will of God. What's more, he is also reasonable and forgiving. Despite his people doing so much wrong, he begged God not to be too harsh. For instance, in the first three versus of chapter 7, Amos had seen a vision of locusts devouring everything in sight. Amos begged God not to be so harsh and go through with this plan, and God relented. In versus 4 through 6, go showed Amos another vision of another plan that he wished to execute. This plan involved consuming the entire nation with fire. Amos, having the heart that he did again begged god not to go through with these actions and god relented another time. Finally, God decided on what he'd do, and Amos bravely preached the message to all of Israel. Amos was a brae man because, even in the face of opp osition, he did not back down r waver in doing the will of God. He stood strong, despite the horrible things the priest and the people said concerning him.

SWOT Analysis assignment Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

SWOT Analysis assignment - Case Study Example As for the screen particular The Galaxy S2 set the stage for astounding colour and vibrancy and the S3 takes that and includes additional land. The HTC One Xs screen is superb, yet preparation issues make it miss the top spot. In the event that we are speaking about electric storage device longevity, the HTC One X offers a somewhat nippier processor than the Galaxy S3. On paper, at any rate, it dominates the competition. Concurring to the polaroid specifications, iphone 4s. The rich, even tone gave by the 4s puts it somewhat in front of the One X. We havent had the ability to appropriately test the S3s Polaroid yet on paper in any event, It isnt putting forth any significant upgrades over the S2. Without having not less than a couple of hours to play around with the S3 , it’s challenging to know exactly how accommodating its additional programming characteristics will be. Were quick to perceive how the new Touchwiz contrasts with Sense 4.0, however were still enormous devotees of ios straightforwardness. The study has found that Apple is the ruler of the market at present. As the CEO of this company the Analysis of this vertical it is recommended that the company should focus more on its strengths and leverage on available market opportunities. Some of the options available at present include diversification of products as well as geographical diversification into emerging economies; increase market share by adopting to low pricing strategies. Apple Inc. has found High demand of iPad mini and iPhone 5, and with the launch of iTV, a higher market penetration can be observed in the near future. A Strong growth of mobile advertising market and increasing demand for cloud based services will increase its overall market share

The Powers and Responsibilities of the Greater London Authority Essay

The Powers and Responsibilities of the Greater London Authority - Essay Example Hence, the power set-up for GLA was kept restricted. However, after a span of six years, the GLA strived for success through the incorporation of a model of ‘strong Mayor’. In the present scenario, the GLA is defined as that form of the government in which powers and responsibilities are bestowed through the Mayor and Assembly with the aim of addressing the challenges that are being faced by London. The various areas in which the GLA is held responsible are inclusive of transportation, policing, fire and salvage, growth and development and lastly strategic planning. The responsibilities of the GLA are not accounted for direct service provision but it operates with the help of functional bodies embedded under the scope of the GLA (London First, 2011). For dealing with transportation, the functional body Transport for London is held responsible. This body is bestowed with the responsibility of managing the system of transportation within the city of London. ... Â  Along with these historical powers and responsibilities of the GLA, on November 30th, 2005, additional powers were proposed to be incorporated under the GLA. The review for the GLA powers and responsibilities gave rise to the inclusion of additional powers and responsibilities which included managing waste, housing, planning and learning along with skills (Office of the Deputy Prime Minister: London, 2005). 2. Literature Review Summarizing the Environmental Policies of the Mayor Johnson (2010) provided a positive feedback towards the decision that Mr. Boris Johnson (the Mayor) considered regarding the environmental issues but at the same time had also criticized the process through which the Mayor aimed to achieve his environmental goals. As per the policies of the Mayor, the target is to achieve 60% reduction in the city’s emission of CO2 by the year 2025. The Mayor stated estimation that 60 billion pounds would be required to be invested for attaining the targeted reduct ion in CO2 emission. However, the Mayor also intimated that he expects spending from the government in this regards up to an amount of 800 million pounds for introducing vehicles emitting low carbon by the year 2018. As regards to the expectations of the Mayor, the author estimated that the government would have to spend 193 million pounds by the year 2015 (Johnson, 2010). The policy of the Mayor was appreciated by the author on the grounds that it would generate contributions for the city in the form of job enhancement, security in terms of energy supply, reduction of fuel inefficiency and also improvement of the public’s health.

APP5HintonN Epi2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

APP5HintonN Epi2 - Essay Example If the margin of error, for instance, is pegged at minus five in the high exposure areas, that will be twenty one units less five units. The result will be a low exposure at sixteen units. Upon the other hand, if the margin of error is assumed at plus five units in the areas with low exposure to pesticide, the result will be a classification of high exposure at twenty four or nineteen plus five. It will therefore be a case of a high becoming a low and a low becoming a high. The allowance for error given here cannot render validity to the result of the sampling. Margins of error can affect the validity of statistical researches. In the afore-stated situation, the given margin of error seems to be high at plus or minus twelve. Bigger margins such as this one here will more likely be unreliable. (Fontaine, Beth. How to Calculate Margin of Error. eHow. [internet]) The error though will not change the measure of association because the margin is either a plus or a minus. In the study of association between patients diagnosed for HIV and the number of their lifetime sexual partners, a confounding factor can result into an error.

Family Medical Leave Act Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Family Medical Leave Act - Essay Example Until 1993, workers were at the mercy of their employer's demands, and would often be forced to resign to accommodate their sick child or ailing parent. Larger workforces usually had some form of a leave of absence, but there was no standardization or legal protection to guarantee that your job would still be waiting for you when you returned. In 1993, President Clinton signed the Family Medical Leave Act (FMLA) that guaranteed US workers that they would have some amount of legal protection if they are forced to take time off from work to take care of a sick family member, or help a woman through the childbirth period. While the intent of the FMLA is simple enough, there are myriad caveats and regulations that enact the legislation. The 1993 FMLA, and subsequent amendments, have created a law that allows time off to be taken by an immediate family member to care for a sick or injured relative. The time frame allowed is generally 12 weeks, though this may vary in specific situations. Because the law attempts to accommodate a wide range of scenarios, and anticipate the application of the law, it has numerous special provisions and entitlements. The purpose of this paper will be to clearly define the eligibility requirements for FMLA leave. This paper will explain what is required to obtain a leave under FMLA. It will present examples of the proper use of the FMLA, as well as the improper use of the Act. This paper will examine the potential for fraud and abuse under the law, and what is currently done to eliminate or reduce these cases. In addition, it will explain the penalty for abuse, and attempt to reveal why abuse may be difficult to identify and punish. It will accomplish these goals by examining the law fr om the standpoint of the individual as well as the organization. While this paper will strive to be complete, it is recognized that the number of specific rules, regulations, and exceptions makes a full and detailed explanation beyond the scope of this paper. The paper will cover the most widely used, and most common requests that are made to employers by workers that have a family member in need of care. Brief Historical Background The 1993 Act was finally passed and signed into law by President Clinton after two unsuccessful attempts were vetoed by President George Bush SR. in the 101st and 102nd Congresses. A Senate Report from the time noted the "demographic revolution" of the time, as well as the increasing numbers of women in the workforce, the number of adults who care for their parents, and the growing number of single parent families (Lee, 1993, 8). The Senate further contended that these numbers would have "profound consequences for the lives of working men and women and their families" (Lee, 1993, 8). In essence, single parent homes left sick children with no caregiver except the breadwinner, and aging adults that would be left to the mercy of the welfare system. In passing the FMLA in 1993 Congress stated that the Act was to "provide job security as well as a proper balance between work and family life for employees, resulting in increased worker productivity for employers" (Lee, 1993, 9). At the tim e the bill was passed, private employers had "failed to adequately respond to economic and social changes that intensified the tensions between work and

Bus Low Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Bus Low - Essay Example Although this law, unique to the State of East Columbia, took effect eight months ago, Better was unaware of it.  Homeowner, in mowing his lawn, stopped the mower and then reached under the housing to clear a grass clump. His hand was severely injured by the spinning mower blade.   This case falls within the ambit of the Uniform Commercial Code, in particular, under article 2 thereof on sales of goods. Homeowner can validly sue both Better and Retailer for the injuries he has suffered. The Supercutter which was manufactured by Better Manufacturing Company (Better) and sold by Retailer, Inc. did not conform to the safety rules and regulation imposed within the state of East Columbia. Better is liable for failure to comply with the safety laws that are enforced within the state where it is being sold. Ignorance of the law excuses no one. Better cannot set up the defense that they were unaware about the law which requires that all power mowers manufactured for use, or sale, or actually sold, in East Columbia be equipped with an automatic brake to stop the blade when the mower is stopped. The said law has already been in force and effect for eight months already and Better is duty bound to know and comply with all the laws that apply to them, to their business and to their products. In the case at bar, Better is liable for damages for its negligence which resulted in damage and injury to Homeowner. Besides, Better has an authorized agent for sales within the state of East Columbia. If the compliance department of Better had failed to update themselves on the laws of East Columbia, Retailer should have informed Better about these laws. Moreover, Retailer made an express warranty to Homeowner that the Supercutter was state of the art and complied with all safety laws when in truth and in fact it does not. If not for the warranty made by retailer, Homeowner may not have bought the

Collecting DNA Evidence Essay Example for Free

Collecting DNA Evidence Essay For many years, fingerprints were the gold standard for linking suspects to a crime scene. Today, the gold standard is DNA evidence because DNA can be collected from virtually anywhere. Even a criminal wearing gloves may unwittingly leave behind trace amounts of biological material. It could be a hair, saliva, blood, semen, skin, sweat, mucus or earwax. All it takes is a few cells to obtain enough DNA information to identify a suspect with near certainty. For this reason, law enforcement officials take unusual care at crime scenes. Police officers and detectives often work closely with laboratory personnel or evidence collection technicians to make sure evidence isnt contaminated. This involves wearing gloves and using disposable instruments, which can be discarded after collecting each sample. While collecting evidence, officers are careful to avoid touching areas where DNA evidence could exist. They also avoid talking, sneezing and coughing over evidence or touching their face, nose or mouth. The following list shows some common sources of DNA evidence: A weapon, such as a baseball bat, fireplace poker or knife, which could contain sweat, skin, blood or other tissue A hat or mask, which could contain sweat, hair or dandruff A facial tissue or cotton swab, which could contain mucus, sweat, blood or earwax A toothpick, cigarette butt, bottle or postage stamp, all of which could contain saliva A used condom, which could contain semen or vaginal or rectal cells Bed linens, which could contain sweat, hair, blood or semen A fingernail or partial fingernail, which could contain scraped-off skin cells When investigators find a piece of evidence, they place it in a paper bag or envelope, not in a plastic bag. This is important because plastic bags retain moisture, which can damage DNA. Direct sunlight and warmer conditions may also damage DNA, so officers try to keep biological materials at room temperature. They label the bags with information about what the material is, where it was found and where it will be transported. These are chain-of-custody procedures, which ensure the legal integrity of the samples as they move from collection to analysis. Analysis occurs in a forensic laboratory, the topic of our next section.

Electron Transport Chain in Respiratory Complex I

Electron Transport Chain in Respiratory Complex I Introduction Every organism depends on energy to survive, in order to maintain an organized state, homeostasis, through metabolism and other biochemical reactions. Energy is generated in a number of different ways depending on the organism. Mammals create energy through the breakdown of organic molecules, such as carbohydrates, proteins and lipids, that yields other compounds that drives cellular processes. One such compound is ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) an essential energy-carrying molecule that is synthesised by respiration through a series of enzyme protein complexes found in the mitochondria. Complex I (NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase) is one of those essential protein complex embedded in mammalian mitochondria. NADH produced by the Krebs tricarboxylic acid cycle and ÃŽÂ ²-oxidation of fatty acids, is oxidised to initiate the mechanistic pathway of Complex I, ultimately reducing ubiquinone and establish proton-motive force across the inner membrane of the mitochondria. It is this proton g radient that will support the generation of ATP from ATP synthase and other core processes. Significant research has been conducted on Complex I, particularly from Bovine heart mitochondria, however to date many aspects of this enzyme is still poorly understood due to its complex structural arrangement and pathways undertaken. To decipher its mechanism, will eventually lead to a greater understanding in the role of Complex I in many diseases and dysfunctions. Mitochondria Mitochondria are small sub-cellular organelles involved in a series of processes primarily with its role in the respiratory system. Occupying almost 10% to 30% of cell volumes of sizes ranging between 0.75 and 3ÃŽÂ ¼m, the unique shape of a mitochondrion allows the process to take place, with its key structural feature being a double membrane.1 These two membranes are separated by the intermembrane space and overall enclose the central matrix. Whereas the outer membrane is inundated by porins to facilitate the movement of solutes of about 12 kDa or less; the inner membrane is impermeable to solutes but presents the ideal environment for the establishment of an electrochemical proton gradient, by the presence of numerous protein complexes. Additional compartments of the organelle include the cristae and the mitochondrial matrix, which comprises a plethora of enzymes involved in ATP metabolism. Additionally, a range of studies have also indicated the ability of mitochondria to form dynamic networks of interconnected tubules that regulates the cell structure to adapt to its specific function when required. As a result, during disruption of such networks, cellular dysfunction can occur, leading to a number of neural related syndromes such as Parkinsons and Alzheimers.2,3 Aside from the primary role of energy metabolism, the mitochondria also power other core cellular functions such as apoptosis, calcium handling and the formation of iron sulphur clusters. The following sections discuss the main enzymes involved in the electron transport chain that lead to the generation of ATP, particularly respiratory complex I, which will be the main focus of this thesis. Respiratory Complexes Complex II Also known as succinate: ubiquinone oxidoreductase, complex II is a 120 kDa enzyme consisting of four nuclear-encoded subunits which are arranged in two domains.4 It is this distinctive arrangement which allows this enzyme to oxidise succinate to fumarate which is coupled to the production of ubiquinol through the reduction of ubiquinone in the mitochondrial inner membrane. While it is involved with cofactors, this enzyme complex does not directly contribute to the proton motive force in order to establish a chemical gradient.4,5 Succinate+ Q à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Fumarate + QH2 Equation 1: Two of the enzymes subunits SdhA and SdhB form a hydrophilic, succinate dehydrogenase subcomplex and forms the succinate/fumarate binding site whereas SdhB contains three iron-sulphur clusters which are embedded to the mitochondrial membrane by the remaining SdhC and SdhD subunits.4 These latter subunits contain a heam group and ubiqionone binding sites. When a flavin dinucleotide, which is ligated to SdhA, it oxidises succinate, the electrons produced in this process are passed down through the iron-sulphur clusters. The electrons subsequently allow the reduction of ubiquinone to ubiquinol.6,7 Complex III Complex III or ubiquinol:cytochrome c oxidoreductase is an 240 kDa enzyme which is made up of 11 subunits. Its structure comprises of two ubiquinone binding sites; Qo, present towards the mitochondrial membrane, catalyses the oxidation of ubiquinol to ubiquinone and Qi, present towards the matrix, catalyses the reduction of ubiquinone to ubiquinol.8,9 Complexes I and II produces ubiquinol from the reduction of ubiquinone, which binds to the Qo site on complex III. During this process, an electron is passed along the iron-sulfur cluster reducing it and moving it towards cytochrome c1 and cytochrome c resulting in a conformational change. The change causes a second electron to be transferred through another pathway formed of cytochromes bL and bH towards to Qi binding site, in where it allows the formation of a semiquinone anion through the reduction of an already bound ubiquinone. Parallel to this, a second quinol is oxidised at Qo allowing the electron to be transferred through the first pathway of Rieske iron-sulphur cluster and cytochrome c1 and the second electron follows the second pathway mentioned above to Qi, reducing the semiquinone anion to ubiquinol.10 The oxidation at Qo releases four protons into the inter-membrane space of the mitochondria and the reduction at Qi results in the uptake of two protons from the matrix wh ich are transferred into the inter-membrane space during ubiquinol oxidation. This complete cycle allows the reduction of two cytochrome c molecules.9 QH2 + 2 cyt c3+ + 2H+in à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Q + 2 cyt c2+ + 4H+out Equation 2: Oxidation and reduction cycles in Complex III results in the movement of four protons into the inter-membrane space maintains the proton motive force used by ATP synthase to synthesise ATP.8 Complex IV Complex IV, also known as cytochrome c oxidase, is an enzyme, which comprises of 13 subunits, of which three are encoded by the mitochondrial genome. The enzyme catalyses the oxidation of cytochrome c which leads to the reduction of oxygen to water allowing the translocation of four protons across the mitochondrial inner membrane.11,12 The oxidation of cytochrome c produces electrons that are transferred to an active site where molecular oxygen is reduced. This reduction producing water releases free energy required for the pumping of four protons from the matrix of the mitochondria into its inner-membrane space. This movement of protons is facilitated through two known proton channels: the K-channel passes two protons for the reduction of oxygen and the D-channel allows the movement of newly translocated protons.13 O2 + 4 cyt c2+ + 8H+in à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ 2 H2O + 4 cyt c3+ + 4H+out Equation 3: The translocated protons and the reduction of oxygen to water allows ATP synthase to generate ATP as this contributes to the proton motive force similar to Complex III. Complex V Primarily known as ATP Synthase, this enzyme complex operates by utilising the proton chemical gradient established in the intermembrane space by the preceding complexes, to drive the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic Phosphate. With an average size of 580 kDa, the enzyme is composed of 16 subunits organised in two hydrophobic and hydrophilic domains; the hydrophobic domain forms a proton conductive pore through the inner membrane while the hydrophilic domain, containing three copies of ÃŽÂ ± and ÃŽÂ ² subunits, spreads into the matrix. The two domains are linked by an asymmetric central stalk and a peripheral stalk, which acts as a stator to prevent the F1 domain rotating freely during catalysis. The interfaces between the two subunits forms the binding sites for ADP and inorganic Phosphate. 14,15 ADP + P+ nH+in à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ ATP + nH+out Equation 4 Complex I Complex I, is the first and largest enzyme involved the electron transfer chain of the mitochondrion. Alternatively known as NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase, its primary role is to oxidise NADH and ultimately reduce ubiquinone.16 NADH + H+ + Q + 4H+in à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ NAD+ + QH2 + 4H+out Equation 5: Just like the other protein complexes, the potential energy released from the redox reaction within the complex, translocates four protons across the inner membrane for every molecule of oxidized NADH and removes two additional protons from the matrix for the reduction of quinone. The processes contribute to the overall electrochemical gradient which is to be used by ATP synthase to synthesise ATP.17 Structure To date, complex I has been found in a variety of species, including many prokaryotes. The complex I from bovine heart mitochondria is primarily used in studies due to its close sequential identity with the human complex I enzyme. The mammalian complex I is one of the most complex and largest enzymes known, with a combined mass of 980 kDA and composed of at least 45 different polypeptide subunits; with 14 strictly conserved core subunits that are necessary for function and also common across the among all known complex I.16 The significance of the additional subunits in complex I among different species still remain a mystery. It is known some be involved in protection against reactive oxygen species generation and some are required needed for proper assembly and stability of the enzyme.16,18 As observed by single-particle electron microscopy (EM) for both bacterial and mitochondrial enzymes, the determined structure of the enzyme closely resembles to an L shape, with seven hydrophobic core subunits that constitutes the membrane tail domain and seven hydrophilic core subunits that constitutes peripheral (hydrophilic) arm domain protruding into the mitochondrial matrix; which is known as the catalytic domain as it includes all redox centres and binding site while the membrane domain consists mostly of hydrophobic subunits. 16 While the full structure of the eukaryotic complex is not still well characterised, in 2006, Sazanov group successfully reported structure of the hydrophilic domain of complex I from Thermus thermophiles bacteria.20 The Peripheral Arm of complex I The peripheral arm of the complex is composed of seven individual subunits, that together, houses the NADH-oxidizing dehydrogenase module, which provides electron input into a noncovalently-bound flavin mononucleotide (FMN) molecule. The molecule sequentially transfers the electron to a chain of nine iron-sulphur (Fe-S) clusters, eight of which are found in the bovine enzyme. Additionally, the hydrophilic arm also comprises of a Q-module, which conducts electrons to the quinone-binding site for quinol production. 16,20 All of these Within the respiratory chain complexes, there are three different types of Fe-S clusters, two of which, are found in complex I; Two binuclear [2Fe-2S] and six tetranuclear [4Fe-4S] clusters. As the name suggests, the binuclear clusters are composed of two iron atoms that function as bridged by two acid-labile sulphur atoms. Each iron atom is also coordinated by an additional two sulphur atoms found on the surrounding cysteine residues from the protein complex. In the tetranuclear Fe-S clusters, four iron atoms and four sulphur atoms are arranged in a cube with each iron atom also ligated to sulphur cysteine-residue on the surrounding protein, similar to binuclear Fe-S.22 Due to their conformational arrangements and redox capabilities provided by the iron atom, these clusters act as electron transfer agents or also known as ferrodoxins. The detection of these clusters can be achieved by EPR (electron paramagnetic resonance) which is successfully achieved in many studies. However, out of the two binuclear and six tetranuclear iron-sulfur clusters found in complex I, only two binuclear and four tetranuclear clusters are EPR active.22 Figure 1.: structures of the iron-sulphur clusters found in complex I. As previously mentioned, seven of the eight clusters, form a 95 Ã…-long extensive chain directly from the flavin site to the quinone binding site on the interface of the membrane domain. Even though the distances between these chains may seem far apart, as much as 14 Ã…, distances are close enough to allow electron transfer to occur.23,24 However, the presence of the eight cluster is still not well understood. Cluster 2Fe[24] found on the opposite side of the Flavin site, is believed not to be involved in electron transfer pathway. While it was just a theory with no evidence, it has been proposed that this additional cluster functions as an electron store that accepts an electron from the flavosemiquinone species preventing the generation of reactive oxygen species during enzyme turnover.24 Membrane Domain of complex I The membrane domain comprises the proton-translocating module which catalyses proton transport. With the exception of subunit ND1 and the quinone binding site, found on the interface of the peripheral arm, the membrane domain functions totally independently from the two arms of complex I. Within the membrane domain, there are four structural subunits that have been identified to be possibly involved with proton translocation; these include subunits ND2, ND4 and ND5. There is also an additional transporter which believed to be either ND1, ND6 or ND4L. Each believed to be transporting one proton per catalytic cycle. Each individual subunits are composed of charged residues and helices that creates half-channels that allow the passage of proton to occur. The membrane structure is also held together by a long ÃŽÂ ±-helix chain that spans across its entire length. Its feature is to maintain and support the integrity of the membrane domain.26 Overall Mechanism of complex I The mammalian complex I includes 45 known proteins, out of which 14 core subunits comprises of both hydrophilic and hydrophobic domains as explained above.16 The mechanism through the electron transfer chain starts with a Flavin mononucleotide (FMN) molecule which is non-covalently bound to the 51kDa subunit through hydrogen bonds at the top of the hydrophilic domain. FMN molecule oxidises NADH leading to the reduction of iron-sulphur clusters (Fe-S) which transfers electrons from Flavin to the quinone-binding site {51}. This electron transfer distorts the conformation of the protein through changes in its redox state leading to alterations in pKa values of its side chains; these alterations allows four hydrogen ions being pumped out of the mitochondrial matrix.24 It is believed NADH gets oxidised to NAD+ through a hydride transfer avoiding the formation of the unstable NAD. Radical.24 This oxidation process occurs when the nicotinamide ring of the NADH lies above the flavin isoalloxazine system, allowing the electron donor hydride (C4 of the 27 nicotinamide ring) and acceptor (N5 of the flavin) to come within 3.5 Ã… of each other and transfer electrons.28 As explained above, NADH oxidation leads to transfer of electrons through seven iron-sulphur clusters chain between Flavin and quinone reduction binding site in the membrane.20 It is the final Fe-S cluster that donates the electrons to the bound ubiquinone substrate which is believed to be accessed through an entry point in the membrane to the binding site.21 These iron-sulphur clusters are best detected using a technique called electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR). Previous studies have observed five reduced Fe-S clusters through EPR from Bovine compliex I reduced by NADH, and their spectra are represented N1b, N2, N3, N4 and N5.25 This technique will be further explained throughout this thesis. A much recent study by Roessler et al. (2010) used EPR to understand the tunnelling electron transfer pathway through these clusters. Previous studies have already established EPR signals N1b, N2 and N3 are detected from 2Fe cluster in the 75 kDa subunit (position 2), and from 4Fe clusters in the PSST (position7) and 51 kDa subunits (position 1) respectively along the clusters chain due to interactions with ubisemiquinones and flavosemiquinone. As the other EPR signals have yet failed to be assigned to a particular cluster, Roessler et al. (2010) went on to use double electron-electron resonance (DEER) spectroscopy to detect N4 and N5. Their results demonstrate that N4 is assigned to the first 4Fe cluster in the TYKY subunit (position 5), and N5 to the all-cysteine ligated 4Fe cluster in the 75 kDa subunit (position 3).25 The study propose an alternating energy potential profile for electron transfer along the chain between the actives sites, in B.taurus, which enhances the rate of a single electron travelling through the empty chain subsequently leading to more efficient energy conversion in complex I.25 Followed by the iron-sulfur cluster is the site of quinone reduction. A study performed by Sazanov and Hinchliffe has identified a supposed binding site for the quinone head group from T. thermophilus complex I hydrophilic domain between the 49 kDa and PSST subunits.20 This alleged site is close to the cluster where the ubiquinone substrate accepts electrons from the chain and it has also been acknowledged the 49 kDa and PSST subunits play an important role in quinone binding and catalysis.29 Nevertheless, it is believed that additional hydrophobic subunits may also be involved in quinone binding and these are still being investigated. Even though the mechanism of NADH oxidation and ubiquinone reduction is relatively well understood, how this oxidoreduction leads to quinone reduction and subsequent protons pumping across the mitochondrial membrane from complex I still remain a mystery. A number of theories for complex I mechanism have been proposed based on the proton-pumping systems of the other mitochondrial respiratory complexes. These theories have been outlined below: A direct coupling mechanism as demonstrated by complex IV through cytochrome c oxidase where the proton transfer is determined by a gating reaction occurring at the same time as the electron transfer reaction that started it.30 An indirect coupling mechanism as seen in complex V (ATP synthase) explained previously. A study performed by Efremov et al., suggests that within complex I, one proton is translocated by a directly coupled mechanism at the Fe-S clusters and the rest are moved when quinone reduction drives conformational changes to the four-helix bundle of Nqo4 and of Nqo6 in complex I, subsequently affecting the C-terminal helix of Nqo12. The C-terminal has been identified by the authors running parallel to the membrane. The effect on this helix consequently leads to the other three helices to tilt which results in proton translocation.31 A Q-cycle-like mechanism as represented by complex III where quinol is used as a carrier to transport protons across the mitochondrial membrane. A study completed by Dutton and co-workers suggested the complete reverse of this mechanism for complex I featuring the presence of two ubiquinone binding sites; one facing the inter-membrane space, Qo, and the other facing the mitochondrial matrix, Qi. The quinone substrate would bind at Qi, and be reduced by one electron from a quinol already bound at Qo and another electron from the Fe-S cluster; subsequently leading to two protons being taken up from the matrix while the formed semiquinone specie is still bound at Qo. Following the uptake of the protons, semiquinone is oxidised to ubiquinone.32 Nevertheless, further studies conducted have found no evidence of ubiquinol oxidation signifying complex I do not work through this mechanism.30,33 While the first isolation of complex I from bovine heart mitochondria by Joe Hatefi et al occurred 40 years ago, information on its overall mechanism of action is still very limited particularly the mechanism of redox-proton coupling occurring in the membrane domain. To further understand this, new studies are being conducted to trap radical intermediates formed at the interface of the peripheral and membrane arm to establish the pathway that initiates proton translocation. Semiquinone radicals Semiquinones are catalytic intermediates formed within complex I during the reduction of quinones at the quinone binding site and can exist in neutral or anionic form. Due to the presence of the unpaired electron, semiquinone intermediates can be studied using EPR spectroscopy. There are numerous pathways in which the formation of semiquinones can occur from quinone. The scheme below, proposed by Roessler and Hirst, illustrates the three main possible routes taken to obtain quinol. Pathways A and B involves with the generation of a neutral semiquinone radical specie based on the transferring of a proton and electron. On the other hand, pathway C which follows through pathway B involve with the generation of an anionic radical specie generated from an electron transfer. All pathways lead to formation of quinol by series of electron transfer and protons. The pathway shown in grey which occurs from the protonation of the neutral semiquinone radical specie will result in a 1-electron-2-centre bond which are energetically unstable.27 Aside from one study, majority of the studies till date, have proved the existence of semiquinones by observing EPR signals using submitochondrial particles (SMPs). As the name suggests, these are inverted membrane vesicles housing the entire electron transport chain containing all enzyme complexes.34 However, since quinone cofactors are used by majority of the other complexes, distinguishing the semiquinone signals with each complex, has been far from successful. More recently, there has been a wave of research focusing on the identification of semiquinone radicals exclusively from complex I, however these have proved even more challenging as the organic intermediates produced very low intensity signals. Within complex I, there are two species of semiquinone that have been identified; SQNf and SQNs.35,36 Based on their EPR properties, SQNf or fast relaxing semiquinones has been reported only during the presence of an established proton gradient across the membrane. On the other hand, SQNs or slow relaxing semiquinones, are not effected by proton gradient. The presence of two semiquinones has also lead to the possibility of complex I to contain two separate quinone binding sites; Due to SQNf having a spin-spin interaction with Fe-S cluster N2, it is theorised that SQNf binding site is located close to the cluster at around 12 Ã… estimated distance, in contrast, SQNs binding site is suggested to be located around 30 Ã… from N2 cluster.22,25,37 Within the complex, the SQNf is believed to be involved in proton pumping and its site aids the system by acting as bound co-factor site that facilitates the transfer of one electron from one site to another allowing the formation of a binding pocket for the SQNs in equilibrium with the ubiquinone pool of the membrane.22,25,32,35,38 The presence of two separate quinone binding sites still remains a mystery and cannot be totally ruled out even though it has been suggested that SQNf and SQNs signals are detected from the same semiquinone species located from different sites or present in catalysis states.39 A recent potential way of observing semiquinone intermediates via EPR is through the use of liposomes. Liposomes containing just Complex I or proteoliposomes, will facilitate the capture of semiqinone within its native environment and hopefully provide an insight in the mechanism of Complex I and the binding of Q10. Liposomes Liposomes are spherical nanovesicles used in a variety of applications. Composed of a phospholipid bilayer, these small vesicles have an aqueous solution core surrounded by a hydrophobic membrane. Hydrophobic chemicals associate with the bilayer while the hydrophilic solutes dissolved in the core cannot readily pass through the bilayer; essentially mimicking the cellular phospholipid bilayer. Due to these features, liposomes can be loaded both with hydrophobic or hydrophilic molecules and are excellent drug carriers or in this case house protein complexes. Liposomes are also not naturally occurring and must be artificially generated using lipid extracts by aggregating them.40 As liposomes are formed from naturally occurring lipids of low intrinsic toxicity, they are biodegradable and non-toxic. The functionality of liposomes is dependent based on three main factors. These include: size, bilayer composition and liposome surface properties.40 Phospholipids are one the essential components in the formations of liposomes and can be divided into synthetic and natural phospholipids. They consist of two fatty acids hydrophobic chains linked to a hydrophilic (polar) head group, and they have either glycerol or sphingomyeline as the back bone. Having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic components, make phospholipids having amphipathic molecules.41 The diversity of the hydrophilic head group molecules and hydrophobic chains length allows the formation of different phospholipids which affects the surface charge and bilayer permeability of the liposomes.40 The length and degree of saturation of the hydrocarbon acyl chains determines the stability of the liposomal membrane, by affecting the temperature at which the membrane changes from a closely packed gel phase to a fluid phase. The surface charge of the liposomes is determined by the charge of the lipid forming it which can be altered by modifying lipids with hydrophilic moieties to membrane bilayers.40 Liposomes can be composed of naturally-derived phospholipids such as cholesterol, one of the commonly used lipids in liposome formation. It enhances the stability of the lipid bilayer and form highly ordered and rigid membrane with fluid like characteristics. Other phospholipids, synthetic and non-synthetic, can also be used for the formation of the liposomes such as pure surfactant components like DOPC (1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine).42 Classifications of liposomes Liposomes are classified according to their morphological sizes and lamellarity, depending on their composition and method of formation.40 Multilamellar vesicles (MLVs) consists several concentric phospholipid bilayers or lamellar ranging between 100nm to 20  µm in size depending on the method of preparation. These large bilayers allow the integration of lipophilic molecules and proteins. Small unilamellar vesicles (SUVs) single phospholipid bilayer and sized between 20 nm to 100nm. Ideal for encapsulation small compounds and proteins. Large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs) single phospholipid bilayer with size ranging from 100 nm to 1  µm. They are known to have larger aqueous core compared with or MLVs, making them suitable to useful to load with numerous compounds. Oligolamellar vesicles (OLVs) vesicles similarly structured to MLVs but consists of anywhere between two and five phospholipid bilayers. Multivesicular liposomes (MVLs) When a large liposome vesicle similar in size to an MLV, enclose a group of liposomes, then the subsequent vesicle is known as multivesicular liposome (MVL). Figure 1.40 The current state of research on liposomes have primarily been focusing on the administration of drugs and other compounds to biological systems since it overcome challenges associated with reaching the target, making them very useful in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries.40 Furthermore, it should be noted, some surfactant based phospholipids can mimic the biological systems helping construct important model systems for the research on enzymes and membranes. Many recent publications concerning liposomes have been focused on using this mimetic chemistry, which deals with models, mimicking cellular membrane to facilitate the research into their structures as well as the mechanisms both in vivo and in vitro.40 Aims of Project The current state of research on complex I remain largely focused on the determination of the mechanism since only a fraction has been found. Fully understanding will help solve many diseases and other complication caused by complex I. Whereas the mechanism of the reactions between NADH and iron sulphur clusters have been established, little is known about the mechanism of proton translocation as well as the role and existence of semiquinones that will lead into revealing more information into the function of the enzyme. The work described in the following records, using the best technique available, EPR, will aim to be using current studies of using liposomes to mimic cellular conditions, similar to the mitochondrial membrane, for complex I in order to obtain data regarding reduction of Q10 and proton translocation. Materials Preparation of Complex I from Bovine Mitochondria Preparation of Complex I proteoliposomes Stock solutions of 25 mgmL-1 of POPC in chloroform was transferred to a glass homogeniser with the required amount of ubiquinone-10 contained in chloroform. The chloroform was removed under Argon. An alternative approach is to remove under vacuum using rotary evaporator. The resulting phospholipid film was resuspended in 675 ÃŽÂ ¼L of buffer (10 mM Tris-SO4 (pH 7.5) and 50 mM KCl), and extruded 25 times through a Whatman 0.1 ÃŽÂ ¼m pore membrane. The liposome mixture was solubilised with the addition of 160 ÃŽÂ ¼L of octyl-glucoside from an aqueous 10% stock solution, sonicated for 10 min, and further incubated on ice for 10 min. The following steps were carried out at 4  °C. 0.2 mg of AOX (50 ÃŽÂ ¼L of 7.8 mgmL-1) and 0.2 mg of complex I (10 ÃŽÂ ¼L of 20 mgmL-1) were added to the solubilised lipids and incubated for a further 10 min, followed by the addition of 100 ÃŽÂ ¼L of SM2 Biobeads. The mixture wa

value of a college education Essay example -- essays research papers

Value Of A College Education According to Lundberg (2003), â€Å"adult students are one of the most rapidly growing segments of today’s college student population, making up approximately 40% of all college students† (665). Having a college education is an important tool that contributes to several aspects of a person’s life. The areas that are impacted the most would be the professional and personal areas. It is important to learn the value of a college education in order to take advantage of what you learn and how to productively apply it in your personal and professional life. Having a college education is something that can always be looked at as a positive achievement that feels good and looks good on a resume. Earning a college degree can provide a lifetime of rewards and unlike most other consumer purchases such as a car, will only appreciate in value, not depreciate. Professional Aspects According to Vocational Training News (2003), despite the current economic climate, college students say having technology skills will greatly increase their employment potential (6). The job market is constantly changing each year. Jobs are now more competitive and having a college degree seems to be a necessity for most which is why having a college degree at least shows that an individual is knowledgeable, enthusiastic, and has worked hard to accomplish a specific goal. Having a college degree also gives more opportunity to apply for jobs of interest. Larger Salary A college degree also allows for the opportunity to earn a larger salary. Having a degree also gives a person more confidence when negotiating salaries. Knowing that a company cannot use the excuse of not having a degree against you is a great benefit. Even though the cost of a college education is outrageous, the benefits of having a degree far surpass those costs. Loans can be paid back but it is very difficult to make a substantial amount of money without a degree. This reminds me of a saying that I once heard though I cannot recall who said it. "If you think the price of education is expensive, try the price of ignorance. You pay for ignorance everyday for the rest of your life."- Anonymous Respect and Admiration Everyone would like something to show from the hard work they put into earning their deg... ...ngs to different areas of a person’s life. In my case, I will have developed the skills and values necessary to be an asset to my company and elsewhere in the business world. I will now not be looked upon as just an â€Å"entry level† worker. More opportunities will be available for jobs that are of particular interest to me and as stated before, the opportunity for a higher salary will exist. By continuing my education, I will have achieved a great accomplishment and know that all of my hard work and determination has finally paid off. The value of a college education is priceless. Earning a degree can only make the future more desirable. In conclusion, I need to take it upon myself to further my education right now, without interruption, no matter what the obstacles may be. References (2003, December). Teens say tech knowledge increases potential jobs. Vocational Training News, 34, (12), 6. Retrieved December 21, 2003, from EBSCO database. Lundberg, C.A., (2003, November/December). The influence of time-limitations, faculty, and peer relationships on adult student learning. Journal of Higher Education, 74, (6), 665. Retrieved December 21, 2003, from EBSCO database.

Behaviorism Theory Essay -- Psychology, Watson, Skinne, Locke

A learning, or behavioral theory, in terms of human development, follows the view that the focus of psychology should be behavior, the way we act. A behaviorist places value on attributes that one can see and therefore study, as opposed to the invisible attributes, such as thinking, feeling, and other brain activity that occurs without one even knowing (Craig & Dunn, 2010, p. 14). There are three important modern behavior or learning theorists: Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, and B. F. Skinner. However, as stated by William Crain John Locke was the â€Å"Father of environmentalism and learning theory†, although Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner were his â€Å"heirs† (Crain, 2011 p.3). To some, the behaviorist theories may seem limiting or incomprehensive, but one can see that all of the major theories play a role in our understanding of development. British philosopher John Locke developed theories in late seventeenth century that a child has no built-in beliefs or understanding of concepts until the child has experienced these things for themselves. He asserted in his writing that through observation of children’s behavior, children are like an empty, unfurnished room that one can select the furnishings for, especially in early years when children are most susceptible to suggestion and input (Crain, 2011). Locke believed that environment was a critical factor in development, but also saw that the way one gives a child input affects behavior as well. Crain, (2011) noted that Locke felt that a child’s good health was important to facilitate, and that beyond that, adults should help reinforce children’s behavior through reward and punishment. More than two hundred years later, B.F. Skinner saw the importance of reward and punishment as he studied oper... ...tson’s later innovations was to remove or de-condition fears, by very slowly introducing the feared object in a slow, incremental, and safe manner until the object no longer evokes a fearful response (Crain, 2011). All of these behavioral/learning theorists have made huge progress in understanding the psychology of human development through a rigid set of principles, through research, observation, and behavior modification experiments. One may be put off by the unyielding denial of cognitive processes in behavior and the relationship to development. To be sure, many theories and theorists have made progress in bridging the gap between behavior and environment only theories, and cognitive theories. One should not lose sight that all of these major theorists have made valuable contributions to our views of human development, including these unwavering behaviorists.

Palanca Awards Essay

The Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature (Palanca Awards) was established in 1950. The heirs of Don Carlos Palanca, Sr. found it most fitting to commemorate his memory through an endeavor that would promote education and culture in the country. The Palanca Awards aims to help develop Philippine Literature by: 1. Providing incentives for writers to craft their most outstanding literary works. 2. Being a treasury of the Philippine’s literary gems from our gifted writers and to assist in its eventual dissemination to our people, particularly the students. 62 years ago, the Palanca Awards called on Filipino fictionists to weave their best short story in either English or Filipino. Today, the Awards continues to challenge writers to pour out their creativity in various literary genres. Instituted in 1995, the Palanca Hall of Fame award is presented to a Palanca awardee who has achieved the distinction of winning five first prizes in the regular categories. TheKabataan Award of Distinction gives recognition to a Palanca awardee who wins four first prizes in this division. The Palanca Awards continues to pursue avenues that help share these literary gems with the rest of the countrymen, to whom Filipino literature ultimately belongs. These winning works are continuously made accessible to students, and all researchers and lovers of literature through the Carlos Palanca Foundation (CPF) library. Adding dimension to the Palanca Awards mission of encouraging excellence in literary writing, CPF is supporting a scholarship program for creative writing. The Foundation also seeks to foster the unbounded imagination and creative spirit of the Filipino through creative writing workshops and readings of award-winning works. Born from a simple dream made 62 years ago to help develop Philippine literature, the foundation holds steadfast to its mission of providing nourishment for the national spirit. †¢Is not a secret that many Filipinos are unfamiliar with Philippine literature especially those written long before the Spanish arrived in our country. This is due to the fact that the stories of ancient time were not written, but rather passed on from generation to generation through word of mouth. Only in 1521 did the Filipinos become to be acquainted with literature due to the influence of the Spaniards on us. But the literature that the Filipinos became acquainted with are not Filipino made, rather, they were works of Spanish authors. †¢The rise of nationalistic pride in the 1960s and 1970s also helped bring about this change of attitude among a new breed of Filipinos concerned about the â€Å"Filipino identity. † †¢ The 1960’s were, summarily, a period when writers seriously grappled with problems of art. The early 1970’s saw a proliferation of politically motivated or committed writing and protest literature. Short-story writers became more conscious of the political milieu and of social issues in the wake of the increased activism all over the world and right in their country, especially during the troubled days of a dictatorial government. Some of the more recent fiction writers include Paulino Lim, Alfred Yuson, Jose Dalisay, Mario Eric Gamalinda, and Cristina P. Hidalgo. Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature, the country’s most prestigious and longest-running literary contest. The Palanca Awards or Don Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature are literary awards of the Philippines. The Manila Standard called it the â€Å"Pulitzer Prize† of the Philippines. [1] It is one of the Philippines’ most long-running award giving bodies. [2] History[edit] The Palanca Awards was established in 1950 to inspire Filipino writers to improve their literary works. [3] In the 1960s the Palanca Awards Committee started to fund the publication of Palanca plays and production fund were committed on 1975. [4] In 2009, it added a category for Poetry for children in both Filipino and English. [2] Winning is tough, and for many writers, it goes beyond the cash prize. Winning means a validation of their work, and for some, it means a step toward joining the ranks of the country’s literati. It was to honor the legacy of Don Carlos Palanca, Sr. that the Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature was established in 1950 and the first award was given in 1951. Through this annual literary contest, the family and heirs of Carlos Palanca sought to keep his name alive, along with his legacy of discipline and perseverance, and to enrich the nation’s cultural heritage.

Ground Water Pumping Through Water Privatization Environmental Sciences Essay

Approximately 30 % of full worldwide land country includes populated waterless and semi-arid countries. The major obstruction to socio economic development in these countries is Water deficits. The indispensable political orientation for the allotment of H2O resources are effectiveness, equity, and sustainability, with the enterprise of give the extreme advantage for society, environment and economic system, at the same clip as to keep sensible allotment amid assorted countries and people. Sustainable economic development in waterless and semi-arid countries relies a batch on sustainable H2O resource direction. The limpid allotment of H2O resources needs a many-sided balance between demand and supply, in assorted economic sectors peculiarly athwart sub-areas in waterless and semi-arid clime countries. Regional development planning demands to integrate economic aims with issue including historical, technological, and natural resource restraints. Jointly, these factors consequence public distribution, economic construction and paradigm of ecology and hence, the extent of H2O distributed for these intents in waterless and semi-arid countries. Regional community, economic and ecological unsimilarity necessitate particular sustainable development schemes in state of H2O scarceness. This survey assesses the feasibleness of different techniques for supplying fresh H2O to arid parts of the universe.BackgroundBrisk industrialisation, urbanisation, and population growing in waterless states are exerting lifting force per unit area on local H2O governments and H2O contrivers to satisfy the emergent ur ban H2O demand. Since handiness of conventional beginnings of fresh H2O deficiencies for imbibing usage, saltwater H2O desalinization, in accretion to partial groundwater resources, are the main H2O supply beginnings for urban use. In last two decennaries, urban H2O emphasis has increased well, owing to fast urbanisation and industrialisation, population growing and development in life criterions.Facts and FiguresWith a surging mean growing rate of over 3.4 % the population amplified from around 17.688 million in 1970 to 38.52 million in 1995. It is predicted to acquire to 81.25 million in 2025. The urban population is anticipated to go up from 60 % in 1995 to over 80 % in 2025. Curriculum has been made for improved escape control in webs of domestic H2O. They have been besides incorporated for effluent intervention and usage once more for industrial and irrigation usage. Water management-related ordinances and Torahs have been designed, numbering those to diminish H2O demands and l osingss. Uncontrolled escapes add well to shoal water-table formation and contagious disease of shoal and deep aquifers. The utmost pumping from local aquifers to accommodate the turning urban H2O demand effects in significant turn down in H2O degrees. This is declining in groundwater quality. At adequately brawny pumping rates the demand is tried to be fulfilled, leads to stream flow depletion. With a changeless addition in urban demand for H2O and sanitation, confront to accommodate these demands are lifting. To building more, dearly-won desalinization workss would be hard. The difference can be resolve with the preliminary portion of new and modern statute law and institutional actions. This can besides be done by taking on advanced techniques in water-demand decrease, effluent reuse sweetening and decrease of H2O production, intervention and distribution costs.Land Water Pumping through Water denationalizationWater denationalization was taken on in 1989 by Margaret Thatcher's authorities. It privatized ten once public regional H2O and sewage companies in Wales and England in the class of disinvestment. In chorus the economic regulative bureau OFWAT was shaped. The Drinking Water Inspectorate ( DWI ) was positioned in 1990 to look into H2O safety and quality. Water denationalization since so is a controversial issue in England and Wales. A survey by the Public Services In ternational Research Unit ( which is affiliated with trade brotherhoods ) , that opposes denationalization in 2001 declared that duty amplified by 46 % in existent footings in the first nine old ages and investings were reduced Operating net incomes have doubled ( i.e.+142 % ) in eight old ages and public wellness was endangered by cut-offs for non-payment. Denationalization helped subscribe off the industry ‘s & A ; lb ; 4.95 billion debt. Privatization editorialist disputed in 1997 that infrastructure-mainly sewers-were non equal. Besides, OFWAT was blamed of non measuring company public presentation with marks. The critics said that OFWAT has chosen net income over supplying a assured degree of services. Conversely, a World Bank article disagree that the reforms six old ages after and before denationalization investings were $ 17b and & A ; lb ; 9.3bn severally which has certainly risen after denationalization brought about conformance with strict imbibing H2O criterions. Besides headed to a higher quality of river H2O. There are besides 16 largely smaller H2O merely companies in England and Wales that have been in private owned since the nineteenth century. In Scotland and Northern Ireland H2O and sewage services have remained in public ownershipDesalinationTo turn saltwater into imbibing H2O, the first large-scale desalinization works for domestic and industry usage in the UK opened on Wednesday 2 June 2010. Facts and Figures The desalinization workss ‘ capacities vary from 1000 to 789 864 m3/day. In 1990 and 1997, the universe desalinated H2O production was approximately 33 % for the entire domestic and 38 % for industrial demand. By 2025, desalinization production is predictable to be about 54 % of the entire domestic and industrial claim. The Ro workss need mechanical energy formed by pumps those work on electricity. About 3.5-9 kWh is necessary to fabricate 1 M3 of desalinated saltwater. The energy demand depends on the salt degree of the H2O input. Besides depends on efficiency of pump and the procedure design. A single-stage works of high efficiency degree, needs around 4 kWh/m3 and 0.5-2.5 kWh/m3 to bring forth 1 M3s of sensible quality H2O from saltwater and salty groundwater. The usage of a low-pressure membrane reduces the energy ingestion by 25-40 % , particularly when utilizing low-salinity H2O.DamDams are made to incorporate H2O, halt implosion therapy and bring forth hydroelectric powe r. Dams make available a H2O supply for irrigation, domestic demands and industrial application. Lakes and reservoirs are made since 19thcentury in UK. The most important resource for constructing a dike is funding. In the UK, the figure of immense dikes grew quickly during the nineteenth century from around 10 to 175. By 1950, the rate of growing about doubled. After 1950, building positioned itself at a rate of 5.4 dikes per twelvemonth. the UK today has a amount of 486 dikes. In Europe, the entirety of dike is lifting easy. The basic ground being that appropriate sites are going less and environmental concerns go turning.Large dikesThe six biggest reservoirs are positioned in the Volga river system in Russia. The two largest are Kuybyshevskoye ( 6450 km2 ) and Rybinskoye ( 4450 kilometer ) . Spain ( approx. 1200 ) , Turkey ( approx. 610 ) , Norway ( approx. 364 ) and the UK ( approx. 570 ) have largest figure of reservoirs.Environmental Issuesa figure of environmental issues are raised by Reservoir building in both edifice and completion phases. On shuting the dike, the H2O degree in the reservoir rises, ensuing in cardinal alterations in the country inundated with the H2O. Like loss of farming area, flooded colonies and the groundwater tabular array raised. Once the reservoirs are made, two sorts of environmental jobs take topographic point: Make the reservoir inappropriate for its intent. Algae and toxic substances in them make imbibing H2O inappropriate. Evoke ecological weakening of the river system, peculiarly downstream of these reservoirs. Large dikes break off the natural permanency of a river. Reservoirs alter the hydrological rhythm, therefore raising many other ecological effects like go forthing fewer engendering sites for migratory fish. Additionally, reservoirs grasp suspended affair largely sand fluxing into them. This decreases the suspended affair weight to make downstream and in the terminal to the sea. Lack of sand at the sea pilots coastal eroding.DecisionConstructing dike is really dearly-won and besides gives rise to a figure of environmental issues as discussed above. Ground H2O pumping and H2O privatizing besides has risen many inquiries refering to H2O degree and environment concerns vis- & A ; agrave ; -vis net income devising. The best option which should be taken in front by authorities is H2O Desalination. Though the one clip investings are high but the job of H2O allotment can be limited with its supplies. Commissariats to bring forth biofuels for the Thames desalinization works have been done, s till till they are place energy ingestion will stay an issue.RecommendationAll the above treatments focus on carry throughing the demand by one method or the other. Still other manner is to convey down the domestic and industrial demand. Legislation ought make more work to stop leaking pipes and diminish the mean H2O usage of clients by repairing more H2O metres and better publicities activities.

Is the American Dream over? Essay

The American Dream is the American ideal of a happy and successful life to which all may aspire. The American Dream is a belief that, in the United States, if a person wants something, they can make it happen. It’s the attitude that no one can hold a person back from their own personal dreams. If someone desires to start a company, and willing to work hard, they can achieve the dream. There is no racism, sexism, or discrimination that can place limits on wealth, stature, appearance or health. Any dream can be made real because of the freedoms we enjoy granted by our constitution and moral standards we as a nation live up to. Immigrants also that come to this nation to escape oppression from their governments around the world or just looking for a better opportunity can live free and run after the American Dream. However, slowly the American dream is becoming more difficult to achieve in our society. Opportunities for success are progressively diminishing because of the rapid expansion of government and its intrusion in our lives. I do not believe the American Dream is dead but it is more difficult to obtain. We may not need a college degree to achieve it but it will make it somewhat easier. The dream starts with individuals taking personal responsibility for their own lives, their own action and their own success. The dream isn’t about getting rich. It is about working hard and intelligently which brings natural rewards. The American dream is liberty and self-government. We the people are free to choose what we want to do with our lives. Originally the American Dream was having freedom of speech and religion. It has evolved into personal prosperity which includes a family, home ownership and dependable transportation. Cal Thomas’s newest column is a controversial argument in the New York Times about the American Dream. Columnist Bob Herbert’s commented on Thomas’ column, â€Å"However you want to define the American dream, there is not much of it that’s left anymore†(Herbert, 568-569). Thomas doesn’t dispute the point, except to argue that the definition of the â€Å"American dream† makes a difference. He agrees that there’s not much left of Herbert’s â€Å"version of the American dream as opposed to the original dream, which remains for those who would embrace it.Herbert’s version of the American Dream is â€Å"liberalism’s American dream,† which has proved unsustainable. Thomas equates the â€Å"liberal† American dream with an entitlement mentality that â€Å"has produced a country of government addicts† devoid of self-reliance, individual initiative and personal accountability. For Thomas, this is a dream in the worst sense of the word. â€Å"People who believe a politician of whatever party or persuasion can make their life better than individual initiative are doing more than dreaming,† he writes, â€Å"such persons are displaying cult-like faith, which can never be fulfilled†(Thomas, 569).

Lady in a Machine Shop: Margaret E. Knight

Margaret E. Knight was born in York, Maine in1838. Margaret was very interested in tools and machinery even as a young child. Woman in that period were not considered to be mechanically inclined or to be interested in machinery.   Children especially were not thought to be creative enough to invent things. Margaret, however, began inventing things at a young age and had her first success very early in life. She witnessed a horrible accident at the cotton mill where she and her brothers worked. Many people had tried over the years to make the looms safer for the workers but no one had come up with an idea that worked. Margaret spend hours and hours creating a safer design for the loom piece in question and at the tender age of 12 she had her first working invention. The covered shuttle she invented is still in use on cotton looms today. In 1868, Margaret moved to Massachusetts and began working at the Columbia Paper Bag Company. Paper bags at that time were envelope shaped and held closed by having twine or string wrapped around them. Square bottom bags were rarely used because they had to be made by hand and were very expensive. Margaret decided that there was definitely room for improvement and set about trying to create a machine that would cut, fold and paste square bottoms bags by itself. This would make the bags much less expensive to produce and do the work of many people with only one machine. She worked days at the Columbia Paper Bag Company and while she worked, she studied the machines that were in existence there already. At night, she took her ideas home and spent hours building and rebuilding models of a machine she thought would create a better paper bag machine. It took a very long time and a massive amount of work to get what she wanted from the  machine. She tested and adjusted and changed things in the plan until it was just what she wanted. Once the design of the machine was perfect, she hired some one to make the actual machine for her. The models had not been very sturdy and she wanted one made of iron that would hold up to a full days work. While Margaret was doing all this, a man named Charles Annan stole her idea and had a patent put on it under his own name. Margaret had put too much work into this machine and was not going to sit by and let someone else take the credit for it. She took Charles Annan to court over stealing her idea and her patent. Charles Annan was confident that he could win by convincing the judge that no woman understood machinery and would never be able to design and build a machine complex enough to make square bottom paper bags. Charles Annan underestimated Margaret Knight and it cost him the court battle. Margaret brought in all her drawings, plans and models of the machine. She explained how it worked and why it would improve the method currently used. Her knowledge and documentation proved to the judge that she was the rightful owner of the design and the machine. Margaret got her patent for the paper bag in 1870. She co-founded the Eastern Paper Bag Company in 1870 as well and put her invention to work. She is known as the Queen of Paper Bags and her invention is used to this day, along with the design she created for the square bottom paper bag. References: Tag Brill, M. (2001) Margaret Knight Girl Inventor Mill brook

Importance Of College Education Essay

A college education is a necessary ingredient for a good job and comfortable lifestyle. In fact, all parents would love to see their children find successful, rewarding careers. Everyone rejoices when a child in their family graduates in college and finds a rewarding and fulfilling job related to one’s chosen field of interest. It’s no secret that a college education can help expand one’s horizons and increase one’s earning power.   Consider some of the statistics and one will be convinced of its importance. Around 84% say that it is extremely (37%) or very (47%) important to have a college degree in order to get ahead. About 62% of parents of high school students say that a college education is absolutely necessary for their child, another 35% say it’s helpful but not necessary, and only 3% say that it’s not that important. Strong majorities say it is absolutely essential that college students gain a sense of maturity and how to manage on their own (71%) and learn to get along with people different from themselves (68%). Americans are divided when it comes to the value of college education especially when the figures are mentioned. Forty-seven percent say that a person gets enough out of a college education to justify spending from $7,000 to $18.000 a year for it, as compared to 40% who think the expense is not justified. But there is no doubt that a lot of people regard a college education as a process that students must undergo to gain general life skills (Mullan, 2003). This, despite the fact that most schools have increased their tuition fees, excluding the cost of books, laboratory expenses and other miscellaneous expenses one incurs in the course of studying. For many families, college will be their second biggest long-term savings goal, other than savings for retirement. (Clark, 2004). There are now tools which can be used to help equip a person as he steps in college (The Education Imperative. Importance of a College Education). Surveys that were conducted regarding the importance of college education reveal that all leaders agree that a strong higher education system is vitally important to the well-being of American society. The U.S. Census Bureau states there is â€Å"a significant disparity between the incomes of those who graduate from college and those who don’t.† (How a College Education can pay off). The survey respondents were nearly unanimous in their view that â€Å"a strong higher education system is a key to the continued economic growth. In addition, the report found an overwhelming majority of leaders believe it is essential to insure that higher education is accessible to every qualified and motivated student. Approximately 92 % of respondents think that society should not allow the price of a college education to prevent qualified and motivated students from attending college. The leaders also agreed that the vast majority of qualified and motivated students can get a college education if they want one and that lack of student motivation and responsibility is a more important obstacle than lack of money (Mullan, 2003). Although education expenses are high, investing in a college education pays off. Recent studies show that employees with degrees earn, on average, 85 percent more than those with just a high school diploma.   They are given more opportunities in finding fulfilling jobs. This earnings gap is tremendous and can be as much as $1 million over a lifetime. Thus, parents need to encourage their children to continue higher studies rather than to work right after high school even if that entails additional expenses for them and more tightening of the belt.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   REFERENCES Clark, W.   2004. Universal College Grant. Retrieved Feb. 10, 2007 at: http://www.clark04.com/issues/highereducation/    How a College Education can pay off. Retrieved Feb. 10, 2007 at: http://www.americanfunds.com/college/importance/college-benefits.htm    Mullan, M, 2003. College Students Stress Importance of   Education to Pupils, Retrieved Feb. 10, 2007 at: http://www.gazette.net/200338/collegepark/news/178428-1.html The Education Imperative. Importance of a College Education. Retrieved Feb. 10, 2007 at: http://gearup.ous.edu/college_importance.php   

EUROPEAN UNION LAW Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

EUROPEAN UNION LAW - Essay Example The reason why Costa wanted an application of Article 177 is to be able to draw an interpretation of Articles 102, 93, 53 and 37 of the said Treaty, all alleged by Costa to have been infringed by the new law. These provisions deal with proscribed legislative acts of Member States. In February 1964, the Milan Court filed for an application of preliminary ruling before the European Court of Justice (ECJ). 3 (a) Costa. The position of Costa was that ECJ acquires jurisdiction by the mere application of a preliminary ruling whereby the application clearly shows the need for Court interpretation of any of the provisions of the Treaty. Moreover, it is not within the prerogative of the Court to determine how a court of a Member State has arrived at the fact of the referral. 5 (b) Italian Government. The Italian Government contended that the application for preliminary hearing was in itself inadmissible because it asked the ECJ not only to interpret the Treaty but also rule on the compatibility of the Italian law with the Treaty. A national court, according to the Italian government, does not have recourse to the ECJ on the basis of an application for preliminary ruling when the dispute attendant to the case requires only the application of a domestic law and not one of the provisions of the Treaty. The only way to involve the ECJ, according to the Italian government, is through Articles 160 and 170 which deal with the European Commission’s direct intervention by bringing case to the ECJ after determination of Member State’s non-compliance with its orders and when a Member State brings a matter against another Member State to the ECJ, respectively. 6 Rationale for the Decision: Whether or not a case involves the application of domestic law and not the Treaty itself, the ECJ can acquire jurisdiction over it once an application for preliminary ruling is submitted showing a need for the interpretation of any of the Treaty

Renewable Energy- Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Renewable Energy- - Research Paper Example A non-renewable energy source is a natural energy source in limited supply. The major renewable source, on the other hand, is the geothermal energy, which is power that is extracted from heat that is stored under the crust of the earth. In the 21st century, there has been an increasing concern to have energy sources increased to match the ever increasing energy demands. This has necessitated the implementation of mechanisms that see to it that more renewable energy sources are explored. This way, more research has been done with various measured put in place to ensure the available few sources of energy are conserved for purposes of achieving stability in energy. This paper explores renewable energy development and progression in China, India, and Nigeria Research indicates that renewable energy production is relatively expensive and requires skilled force for purposes of running the machinery. However, one thing to content with is that recently, emphasis has been on how best to make use of the renewable energy. According to Nnadi (2011), there is an increasing need to adapt renewable energy instead of overreliance on the none-renewable energy sources. Failure to work towards generating more renewed energy sources leads to an energy crisis. One country that has had to content with this hard reality is Nigeria (Nnadiet al, 2011). On the contrary, in an effort to replenish the diminishing energy sources, China reportedly been making use of its renewable energy resources. Facing similar situation, India has been working around the clock to make sure it fully makes use of its renewable energy sources. Sources of energy that have notably been explored include solar, biomass and geo-thermal energy. Certainly, employing such strategy has seen India realizing increased sustainable energy, which ultimately has helped reduce on the greenhouse gas emissions. Historically, Oil, coal, water, as well as wood have widely been used to produce energy. However, with advancement in technology, new methods of producing energy have been embraced. Basing on research, a major energy crisis is beckoning if it happens that there is lucidity in implementing programs that see to it that there is increased production of renewable energy sources. It is undisputable that energy production requires a highly trained workforce. In this respect, a work force that is focused and well trained ensures that there is efficient utilization of energy. Fundamentally, individuals are tasked with the responsibility of increasing energy conservation measures that are geared towards realizing reduced energy crisis. There is need to encourage scientific studies to be conducted in the energy sector to ensure the processes are carried out in the proper ways (Ravikrishna, 2011). With a focus on Nigeria, it is worth noting that it is one of the countries known for its rich natural resources. Such natural resources that are heavily depended upon include water, minerals and fertile land whi ch can be used to achieve economic goals. However, failure to fully explore their natural resources is an issue subject to debate. The effective use of electricity would boost their goals of achieving economic recovery. However, this is not the case following the lacking will to impress technological advancement research would have it Nigeria has for years, failed obtain renewable energy.